12.1: Oral versus Written Language

Learning Objectives

1. Understand the importance of language.
2. Explain the difference between denotative and connotative definitions.
3. Understand how denotative and connotative definitions can lead to misunderstandings.
4. Differentiate between oral and written language.

The language of this textbook is in English. When you were in high school maybe you studied a second language like Spanish or Chinese. Regarding your speeches, when we use the word “language,” we are referring to word choice, not whether the speech is in English or some other tongue. Notice the word tongue—by definition, our focus is on spoken language. Spoken language has always existed prior to written language. Just like you learned to talk before you learned to write! Historically, written language is a relatively recent phenomenon. Imagine the entire human history of language as a full-length Netflix series—say 12 episodes long. Spoken language would span all 12 episodes, while written language wouldn’t show up until the final few minutes of the series finale! Furthermore, while there are thousands of languages spoken around the world today, not all of them have developed a written form. Before we delve into the differences between oral and written language, to help us understand the importance of language, we will first look at the basic functions of language.

Basic Functions of Language

Language is any formal system of gestures, signs, sounds, and symbols used or conceived as a means of communicating thought. Language is ultimately important because it is the primary means through which humans have the ability to communicate and interact with one another. Some linguists go so far as to suggest that the acquisition of language skills is the primary advancement that enabled our prehistoric ancestors to flourish and succeed over other hominid species (Mayell, 2003).

In today’s world, effective use of language helps us in our interpersonal relationships at home and at work. Using language effectively also will improve your ability to be an effective public speaker. Because language is an important aspect of public speaking that many students don’t spend enough time developing, we encourage you to take advantage of this chapter.

One of the first components necessary for understanding language is to understand how we assign meaning to words. Words consist of sounds (oral) and shapes (written) that have agreed-upon meanings based on concepts, ideas, and memories. When we write the word “blue,” we may be referring to a portion of the visual spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 440–490 nanometers. You could also say that the color in question is an equal mixture of both red and green light. While both of these are technically correct ways to interpret the word “blue,” we’re pretty sure that neither of these definitions is how you thought about the word. When hearing the word “blue,” you may have thought of your favorite color, the color of the sky on a spring day, or the color of a really ugly car you saw in the parking lot. When people think about language, there are two different types of meanings that people must be aware of: denotative and connotative.

Denotative & Connotative Meaning

Denotative meaning is the specific meaning associated with a word. We sometimes refer to denotative meanings as dictionary definitions. The definitions provided above for the word “blue” are examples of definitions that might be found in a dictionary. The first dictionary was written by Robert Cawdry in 1604 and was called Table Alphabeticall. This dictionary of the English language consisted of three thousand commonly spoken English words. Today, the Oxford English Dictionary contains more than 200,000 words (Oxford University Press, 2011).

Connotative meaning is the idea suggested by or associated with a word. In addition to the examples above, the word “blue” can evoke many other ideas:

• State of sadness (feeling blue)
• A sudden event (out of the blue)

We also associate the color blue with the sky and the ocean. Maybe your school’s colors or those of your archrival include blue. There are also various forms of blue: aquamarine, baby blue, navy blue, royal blue, and so on. You might have had experience reacting negatively to a word choice; you are probably sensing the word’s negative connotation. For example, while you might agree that there is a stubborn personality trait that runs in your family, you’d probably prefer being called determined or persistent, which has a more positive connotation.

Some miscommunication can occur over denotative meanings of words. A new gym in town launched a marketing campaign with the phrase “Opening Soon!” displayed on banners, social media, and their website. Over several months, the gym continued to use phrases like “Opening in late summer” without providing specific dates. While the denotative meaning of “late summer” could technically extend to the end of September, many community members interpreted it connotatively to mean August or early September. As delays continued, potential customers grew frustrated. One Reddit reviewer commented, “They keep saying they are ‘opening in late summer,’ which I guess is technically until the end of September?”—highlighting the growing skepticism and irritation. The vague language, while technically accurate, created a perception of dishonesty or poor planning, which likely damaged the gym’s credibility and trust with the public. In fact, one of the author’s of this textbook became fed up and decided not to join the gym (which eventually opened a year later!)

Although denotatively based misunderstandings such as this one do happen, the majority of communication problems involving language occur because of differing connotative meanings. You may be trying to persuade your audience to support increased funding for nutrition assistance programs in your city However, if you refer to the program as “food stamps,” which may carry negative connotations such as dependency or stigma, you risk alienating your audience. In contrast, using the term “SNAP benefits” (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program) sounds more neutral and policy-oriented (in fact, the name was officially changed in 2008), which can help maintain credibility and focus on the program’s purpose. The potential for misunderstanding based on connotative meaning is an additional reason why audience analysis, discussed earlier in this book, is critically important. By conducting effective audience analysis, you can know in advance how your audience might respond to the connotations of the words and ideas you present. Connotative meanings can not only differ between individuals interacting at the same time but also differ greatly across time periods and cultures. Ultimately, speakers should attempt to have a working knowledge of how their audiences could potentially interpret words and ideas to minimize the chance of miscommunication.

You Try It: Denotation vs. Connotation Challenge

Activity Introduction: Words have both literal definitions and emotional associations. In public speaking, knowing the difference helps you avoid misunderstandings and choose language that supports your message. In this activity, you’ll practice telling denotative and connotative meanings apart by sorting examples into the correct category.

Wrap Up: Miscommunication often happens when people assign different connotations to the same words. By recognizing these differences, you can choose language that supports clarity and builds trust with your audience. Use this reflection to help you become more intentional with your word choices in everyday communication.

Twelve Ways Oral and Written Language Differ

A second important aspect to understand about language is that oral language (used in public speaking) and written language (used for texts) does not function the same way. Try a brief experiment. Take a textbook, maybe even this one, and read it out loud. When the text is read aloud, does it sound conversational? Probably not. Public speaking, on the other hand, should sound like a conversation. McCroskey, Wrench, and Richmond highlighted the following twelve differences that exist between oral and written language. Oral language employs:

At the clausal level—

• shorter sentences
• more qualifying statements (clauses beginning with because, unless and except).

At the word level—

• smaller variety of words.
• words with fewer syllables.
• fewer quantifying terms or precise numerical words.
• more colloquial and nonstandard words
• more self-reference words (I, me, mine).
• more pseudo quantifying terms (many, few, some).
• more extreme and superlative words (none, all, every, always, never).
• more interjections (“Wow!,” “Really?,” “No!,” “You’re kidding!”).

At the sound level—

• more repetition.
• more contractions.

These differences exist primarily because people listen to and read information differently. First, when you read information, if you don’t grasp content the first time, you have the ability to reread a section. When we are listening to information, we do not have the ability to “rewind” life and relisten to the information. Second, when you read information, if you do not understand a concept, you can look up the concept in a dictionary or online and gain the knowledge easily. However, we do not always have the ability to walk around with the Internet and look up concepts we don’t understand. Therefore, oral communication should be simple enough to be easily understood in the moment by a specific audience, without additional study or information.

You Try It: From Page to Podium: Making Written Language Oral

Activity Introduction: Written language often sounds too formal or complex when spoken aloud. Effective speakers translate dense text into clear, conversational language that listeners can follow easily. In this activity, you’ll practice turning a written paragraph into language that works well for public speaking.

Wrap Up: Adapting written language for speaking helps you shape a message that’s easier for listeners to understand and remember. As you continue preparing speeches, try reading your words aloud to see where phrasing feels too formal or too complicated. The more natural your language sounds, the stronger your connection with your audience will be.